مراجعه كامله لماده الحضاره ^هديه^

الناقد الاول

The age of Dryden 

"Verse"

الشعر

• *Social and political background of the age:
•   The Stuart Restoration was followed by an great change in the general temper الحاله المزاجيه of the English
• people.
• شهد عصر استعاده الملكيه تغيرات فى المزاج العام للشعب الانجليزى الا وهى:
• *A strong reaction against رد فعل واسع النطاق ضد puritanism الحركه التطهريه.
• *People avoided virtue الفضيله and they tend to committed sins.الخطايا
• *Thus, The spirit of corruption الفساد spread.
• Fly on the wall 
• ده تعبير يستخدم اذا استطعت ان ترى وتسمع الاحداث اثناء وقوعها
• The influence of the age on literature:
• *In the Restoration age, literature is intellectual فكرى  rather than اكثر من كونه imaginative or emotional. (From the head, not the heart)
• *Real earnestness of purpose جديه الهدف, strong passion قوة العاطفه and great creative energy الطاقه الابداعيه الخلاقه had passed away.ذهبت مع الريح (تلاشت)
• *Poetry became prosaic نثرى and was judged by the standards معايير of prose.
• *The poet made his verse the vehicle اداه of argument, personal and political satire هجاء.
• *Literature ceased to soar توقف عن التحليق and became pedestrian يسير على قدميه.
• &The Influence of France:
• طالما احنا بنتكلم على العوامل التى تأثر بها الادب الانجليزى فى عصر استعاده الملكيه فلا يجب ان ننسى ان الأدب الانجليزى فى هذه الفتره تأثر  تأثرا كبيرا بالأدب الفرنسى
• *In the restoration age, France had become the world's great style of taste. Thus,France had a great influence on English literature.
• ففى الفتره سحبت فرنسا البساط من تحت اقدام ايطاليا واصبح الذوق الفرنسى هو المهيمن.
• *The political relations between the two countries increased the influence of france, including french taste and french ideas of art.
• وزادت علاقه انجلترا بفرنسا فى هذه الفتره لذلك تأثر الانجليز بالذوق والفن الفرنسى .
• *The literature of France was characterized by lucidity (clarity) وضوح الفكره vivacity حيويه and by reason . العقل
• *It was to the literature of the polite society that is controlled by reason.
• *It was the literature that English writers took as a guidance.
• *The final result of this influence was the growth of an artificial type of poetry.
• ____________________________________________
• The Forerunners السابقين of Dryden
• *In the period of dryden there were two writers, whom he himself regarded as his masters, aand who are considered the pioneers رواد of the so-called "classic" school 
• of poetry, Edmund waller and sir John Denham.
• *They avoided obscurity قذاره of the metaphysical poets and adopted the good sense and clear expression.
• *In fact, they were the reformers مصلحين of English poetry.
• *Dryden maintains that
• "The excellence and dignity of our time were never fully known till Mr.Waller taught it, he first made writing easily an art....
• *This means that waller was the poet who re-shaping the heroic couplet which we know as the classic or closed form.
• *In this kind of heroic couplet the metrical pause and rhetorical pause come together.
• Remember the days you prayed for the things you have now.
• 
  
• معلومه على الهامش
• Heroic Couplet TWo rhyming lines of verse which are written in iambic pentameter to form a complete thought.
•            x   / x / x  /  x / x  /
•           First follow Nature, and your judgment frame.
•            x  /  x/  x /   x/  x /
•           By her just standard, which is still the same:
• Iambic pentameter is a line of verse consisting of five feet and each foot begins with unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one.
• 
  
• Notice: 
• *The classic couplet didn't reach its final shape in waller's hands, but he paved
• the way to alexander pope who give it its final shape.
• Dryden Life
•  *Jhon Dryden is regarded as one of the most important liberal and Neo-classical critics.
• *He wrote his first poems, the "Heroic stanzas on the death of oliver cromwell ", and "Astraea Redux" in celebration احتفالا of restoration
• استعاده الملكيه of charles II.
• *In 1670, he was made poet laureate امير الشعراء .
• *In may, 1700, he died.
• Dryden's poetry
•     John Dryden was a great English poet, literary critic, translator, and playwright who dominated سيطر على the literary life of Restoration age to such a point that the period came to be known لدرجه ان المرحله سميت as the "Age of Dryden". For examble, Walter Scott called him " Glorious Hgon."
• *aS A POET, HE RIPENED نضج VERY SLOWLY.
• *hIS FIRST POEM. aN ELEGY رثاء ON THE DEATH OF Young Lord Hastings is very bad;
• *His "Heroic Stanzas" contains a few crude غير متقنين lines and images.
• *He was influenced by the characteristics of the metaphysical taste and began to form the Neo-Classical school which revealed his poetic talent.
• وللحديث عن موهبه جون درايدن الشعريه يمكن النظر الى اخر 20 سنه فى حياته والتى تحرر فيها من خصائص المدرسه الميتافزيقيه وبدأ فى وضع اسس المدرسه الكلاسيكيه الجديدة
• 
  
• الاعمال التى تسببت فى شهره جون درايدن
• *His works, which mark تحدد/تميز the establishment تأسيس of the classical school of poetry in England, may be dealt with under three heads:
• (1)The Political satires:
• A) "Absalom and Achitophel", a defend يدافع the king's policy سياسه against the Earl of shafsbury.
• B) "The Medal", another invective ذم against shafsbury.
• c) "MacFlecknoe", a personal attack هجوم شخصى on a former سابق friend Thomas Shadwell.
• 
  
• (2) The two great doctrinal مذهبيه poems:
• " Religio Laici" and "The hind and Parther"
• A) These two poems are not written in the strict religious sense>
• B) There is nothing spiritual روحانى about them.
• c) They are written in two opposed points of view وجهات نظر معارضه .
• D) They are argumentative than poetical جدليين اكثر من كونهم شعريين. So,he was the first one who joined argument with poetry.
• E) His mental flexibility and agility سرعه بديهه gave him remarkable power as a special pleader.
• محامى ماهر يستطيع ان يدافع عن وجهتان نظر معارضتان ويستطيع ان يقنعك بالاثنين معا.
• -(3) The fables حكايات خرافيه:
• A) These tales حكايات were written when Dryden was ill-health, so they give him a little to rank منزله among our best story-tellers in verse.
• B) For example, The "palamon and Arcite", based upon the "knights Tales of chaucer," providers an opportunity فرصه for a ccomparison between the method and art of the 14th century, and those of the 17 century poet.
• القصص ديه كتابها درايدين وهو فى اخر ايامه كان تعبان لذلك جعلته فى منزله اقل من كاتبى القصص الغنائيهوكما انها ادت الى اتجاه النقاد الى المقارنه بين القصص التى كتبت فى القرن 14 تلك التى كتبت فى القرن ال 17 وطبعا كانت المقارنه بين القصص التى كتبت فى القرن ال 14 تلك التى كتبت فى القرن ال 17 وطبعا كانت المقارنه لصالح كتاب القرن ال 14 
• Characteristics of Dryden's poetry:
• (1) Dryden's poetry is representive of the age ممثل لعصره
• (2) It has little imaginative power, little depth offeeling and little spiritual glow الجانب الروحى .
• (3) On the other hand, it is characterized by wonderful intellectuality فكر and vigor قوة of style.
•  If dryden is seldom poetic he at least gives us many 
• passages قطع of wonderful, strength eloquence فصاحهه.
• (4) He holds his own as a satirist and as a reasoner in verse. In both these fields, he is still our greatest master.
• (5) It was Dryden's influence that lifted the classic couplet مقطوعه شعريه ثنائيه into the place it was to occupy تحتل for many years.
• Heroic couplet:
• Great wits are sure to madness near allied 
• And thin partitions do their bounds divide
• خالى باللك عصر درايدن مكنش فيه شاعر رائع غير درايدن وبعده بولتر
• Bulter
• *Bulter lives on the strength of one work which is " hudubras" ; A satire on the puritans.
• *"Hudubras" was against the 'saints' القساوسه (puritans).
• *Hudibras tells us about the misadventures حدث سئ of a knight فارس and his squire اقطاعى.
• *Sir Hudbras, a military knight dealt violently with people who weren't puritians; while his squire, Ralpho, is an imposter دجال , who assumes the mask of virtue فضيله for his own profit that will be set by heels.
• Characteristics of Hudibras:
• (1) To modern taste " Hudubras" is far too long; some of it best passages suffer from prolixity اسهاب.
• (2) It is full of wit ذكاء and vivacity وضوح وحيويه.
• (3) Its doggerel meter الايقاع الرديئه is fitted to the spirit and purpose of the burlesque السخريه/ الهزل.
• (4) It was bulter's intention to kill puritanism by ridicule.
• (5) Bulter saw only the extravagance طرف/تبذير and the charlatanism دجل that were asspciated with puritanism.
• The age of Dryden
• "Prose and Drama"
• النثر والدراما
• Matthew arnold says " The Restoration marks the real moment of birth of our modern prose". and enables us to be clear , plain, and short. It
• is true that after the Restoration English literature finds the ture law of prose and becomes modern.
• Old and modern prose:
•    The older prose was too complex معقد : the sentences were long;
• Parenntheses جمل اعتراضيه were numerous; it followed Latin syntax.
•    In the new prose all these characteristics are changed. The sentences are much shorter and simpler; the parentheses جمل اعتراضيه are cleared away تم الغائها.
• Causes that established new prose:
• Many causes comined in the establishment of this new prose as:
• (1) The spread of the spirit of common sense and of the critical نقديه temper of mind which was so damaging to the interests of poetry.
• (2) The influence of science, which favored فضلت clearness of thought and plainness سلاسه of expession.
• (3)A new kind of public was growing up which was varied in character and tastes. This change of public meant that things which had formerly been treated in a dry, and difficult way had to be made simple and pleasant.
• (4) In a age of political and religious excitement اثاره,there was a great development of that sort نوع of litereture which we now class under the head of journalism الصحافه .
• (5) The influence of french literature. the france had evolved a kind of prose that, with its clearness,flexibility, and good taste, provided the model that the English writers needed for their guidance.
• Dryden's prose work
• Dryden's prose writings consist mainly of essays and prefaces مقدمات dealing with a large range نطاق of questions connected with poetry and drama. As the Restoration saw the rise of the new prose, so also it saw the beginnings of modern criticism نقد.Thus, this age is on the side of analysis تحليل than on htat of imagination, and Dryden, our first great modern prose writter, is also our first great modern critic.
• Dryden's prose characteristics:
• (1)In his criticism he takes up and discusses nearly all topics, which were of interest to the literary world of his time; the forms and methods of the drama, the relations of art and nature....etc.
• (2)His work is thus of great importance and his best criticism is to be found in his writings on the drama, and particularly in the "Essay of Dramatic poesy ",in which he considers يفكر فى the principles مبادئ and  merits مزايا of the three chief رئيسيين types of drama: the classical drama of the Greeks and Romans. the new-classical drama of the french, and the romantic drama of the English. 
• (3)Dryden often writes hastily and is careless in detail and he accepted the limitations and prejudices of his age, so it has a historical important.
• (4)His prose style is characterized by clearness, vigor قوة and a colloquial ease, and rarely descends to the level of the commonplace.
• Bunyan
•    The only realy great name in the prose literature of Dryden's age is that of john Bunyan.He was born at bedfordshire. Bunyan wrote much;but his four great works are " Grace Abounding" , " The pilgrim's progress","The life and Death of Mr.Badman" and "The Holy war".
•    There are many things about Bunyan that make him a very important figure رمز in literary history;
• (1) His wonderful imagination gave him a place in an unimaginative age.
• (2)He is only man in our literature who has ever succeeded in writing a long prose allegory استعاره.
• (3)The combined vividness حيويه and plainnessسلاسه of his writings is also another remarkabel feature خاصيه of his work.
•  Bunyan was not an educated man; he knew nothing of the classics;nothing about theories نظريات of literature; literature; little or nothing, even, about English literature.
• But he had the version اصدار of the English bible الانجيل by heart and he was endowed منح by nature with a genius عبقريه for style.
• The opposition between bunyan&Milton:
•   Both were puritans; Milton, the master of all the learning of the schools, was fed also by the renaissance, while Bunyan in the most unqualified sense of the term was the child of puritanism only. If therefore we are asked to name the greatest product of puritanism on English literature, our choice should fall on " the pilgrim's progress" rather than on " paradise lost"
• هنا بنقول ان الاثنين نتاج للحركه التطهيريه ولكن ميلتون متعلم ولكن اذا اردنا ان نأتى بعمل يعبر عن الحركه التطهريه سيكون هذا العمل هو عمل بيونين وليس ميلتون
• "Pilgrims's progress" isn't a novel but a forerunner of a novel:
•      The controlling didactic اخلاقى purpose and the allegorical form prevent us from putting in into the class of regular modern novels. But because of the interest of the narrative, the characters, the dialogue, the dramatic power, and the grasp of ordinary life, it should be regarded as a forerunner of the novel.
• Other prose writers of the period
•      Sir William Temple, who wrote letters and essays in plain style, and John Tillotson, who indroduced a similar style into religious oratory خطابه have a certain importance in the establishment of the new prose.The great value of that prose in philosophic discussion was shown by John Locke in his " kssay on the Human Understanding"," Tratise on Government", and " Thoughts on Education",But the most interesting minor ثانوى prose writing of the time for the general reader a to be found in the work of the two diarists كتاب اليوميات joan Evelyn and samuel pepys.
•      Evelyn's " Diary" is read as a record of contemporary معاصره events. It is written is a simple style; pepys's : Diary" on the other hand, is one of the most entertaining of books in any literature. Its principal اساسى interest lies in the vivid حيوى descriptions which it gives of the men and manners of the day, and the habits, fashions, and scandals فضائح of the "town" As a revelation كشف of character from the inside, the Diary is unique.
• The Drama of the age of Dryden
•      The theatre was now an hones creature of the demoralized مفسود اخلاقيا world of fashion, as it reflected يعكس the taste of its patrons زبائن . The comedy has dash سرعه and gaiety مرح; and its wit is plentiful وافر but it is entirely بشكل كامل lacking in truth to nature.
•      Tragedy, though it kept free from the corruption of comedy, was equally artificial, For a time its most popular form was that of the Heroic Drama, in which love, gallantry تودد للنساء, and courage were depicted يصور  on a gigantic هائل scale with little reference to life, and the dialogue of which was filled with deep rant صخب and extravagance تهور Dryden himself was the master of his from, which is shown in its perfection كمال in his " Tyrannical love" , and his " Conquest of Granada"
•      The fashion of the Heroic Drama did not, however, last very long, and a reaction towards other forms set in his " All for love " Dryden, reverted عاد to shakespeare and blank verse.
• الناقد الثانى 
• The Age of pope
• "Verse"
• The main characteristics of the age:
•       The writers became as preachers, they convince people not through feelings, but through intellect العقل.
•       It is a literature of , intelligence, of wit, and of fancy ميل-هوى , not a literature of emotion, passion, or creative energy.
•       The Age of pope is sometimes called the classic Age and sometimes the Augustan Age of English literature. It is also called the age of " reason" or the age of the "enlighten".
• 1-iT IS CLASSICAL BECAUSE POETS AND CRITICS USE THE CLASSICAL LITERATURE AS THEIR MODELS.
• 2- It is Augustine as the age of Augustus was the golden age of latin literature, so the age of pope was the golden age of English literature.
• 3-It is the age of reason because people began to celebrated the reason.
• Characteristics of the classical schools of poetry;
• (1) Classical poetry is didactic تعليمى and satiric هجائى - a poetry of argument and criticism, of politics and personalities.
• (2) It is almost a "town" poetry".
• (3) It shows no real love of nature, landscape, or country things and people.
• (4) In the Age of pope, there were a hatred of the 'romanric in literature and a hatred of enthusiasm in religion.
• (5)The love of the form led to a highly artificial style.
• Pope's life
• Alexander pope (1688-1744) is regarded as one of the most important Neoclassical poets and critics of the English Augustan period.
• Pope's work
• Pope's poetic career falls into three periods:
• (1) To the period before 1715, he wrote : "four pastrals " , " The Messiah"," Windsor forest" and
• "Alexander Pope's " An Essay of criticism" is regarded as his major critical work. Pope intended the essay to be a treatise in which he formulates his critical principles.The essay is of great importance since it sums up the tenets تعاليم ideals of Neo-Classicism.
• "The Rape of the lock" which may be called pope's masterpiece تحفه فنيه. Pope defines the poem as " heroic comical". It is better to call it a mock Epic.
• (2) The translation of the "Iliad" and " The ODyssey" represents the labors اعمال of pope's second period. He tried to translate Homer's "Iliad" and " the Odyssey", but didn't succeed. The real difficulty lay in the fact that neither he nor his age could understand or enter into the spirit of Homer or the Hoeric world.
• (3) After the publication of his " Homer", pope confined قيد himself to satiric مجانى and didactic تعليمى poetry. He wrote " The Dunciad"."The Essay on Man" a poem in four epistles خطابات in which pope undertakes يبدأ a defense of the moral government of the universe and an explanation of the physical and moral evil in it.
• The main Characteristics of pope:
• (1) He had neither the imaginative power nor the depth of feeling without which great poetry is impossible.
• (2)His view of life was narrow and shallow view. But he was the very embodiment تجسيد of the idea of intelligence which was currently known as " wit"
• (3) He is also the most excellent بارع master of the classic couplet. Pope's couplet was followed by all other poets till the early nineteenth century.
• Other poets of the period
•    Matthew prior: he wrote a parody محاكاه ساخره of Dryden's "The Hind and the panther", entitled " The Town and country Mouse". He produced an Imitation تقليد of " Hudibras" called " Alma" , and a lonbg and very serious poem "solomon".
•    John Gay:he wrote "Fables" a series of six pastorals قصائد رعويه ," The Shepherd's Week", " trivia", a humorous description of the london street.
• Edward Young: HE WROTE " Night Thoughts" a gloomy poem.
• النثر والدراما 
• prose and Drama
• Daniel Defoe
•     Daniel Defoe is a journalist صحفى and pamphleteer مرلف قصص, He had the keenest sense of what the public wanted, because he is a son of a bucher. Thus, he writes with acknowledge of his audience mainly the puritan Middle classes and select  themes which will have an immediate appeal of them. He regards the novel not as a work of the imagination but as a true relation.
• Defoe proceeded to work producing " The life and the Adventures of Robinson Crusoe", " The Memoirs of a cavalier", " Captain singleton" , " Moll Flanders", etc. Defoe to the very last gave out his made-up storues as true stories, and took infinite لانهائى pain to convince يقنع his readers of the realism واقعيه of his narratives. His fictions were still thrown into biographical form and no attempt was made towards the organization of the materials into a systematic منظم plot ; and , since it was his object at all time to give to his invention the air and semblance شكل of truth, his stories are told as if they were stories of actual life.
• Swift
•   Jonathan is most powerful and original genis عبقريه of his age. Swift is one of the greatest of English prose writers. As a master of simple, direct, colloquial style, he has few rivals منافسين and no superior متفوق عليه . His special field was satire and his favorites instrument is irony سخريه . "The battle of the books" and " A tale of a Tub" take rank مكانه among the finest prose satires in the language.
• Swift 's " Gullivers' Travels" and " Robinson Crusoe" are amongst بين the popular things in Englsih literature.
• Addison and steele
• The names of joseph Addison and sir Richard steel are always associated مرتبطه on account of their collaboration تعاون in the essay. Their characters were contrasted.Steele was a thorough, easy going, thriftless تافه , eareless مهمل , but fall of generosity كرم and sympathy تعاطف and with an honest love of what is pure and good.
• Addison was an urbane مهذب gentleman, of refinement of taste and lofty رقى ideas of morality and pietyتقوى , but shy خجول , and a little austere قاس.
• Steele wrote " The Tatler" the first of the long line of 18th century periodical essays. The most famous of steel's essays " The Spectator". it contain 635 essays. Of these Addison wrote 274 and steele 240, the remaining 121 being the work of various friends.
• Addison and steele set themselves as moralists to face two opposed influences of restoration and puritans. They wrote with an educational as well as with a purely moral aim, and it was always one of their objects to extend and popularize general culture. Thus they discussed art, philosophy, the drama, and poetry and sought in so doing not only to interest the general reader in such subjects, but also to guide and develop his taste.
•      The great achievement of Addison and steele is the development of character that became personal and vital. So this large development in characterization must be regarded as a stage in the evolution of the genuine novel.
• Other poets of the period
•   Jogn Arbuthnot who wrote " the history of john bull". Lord Bolingbroke wrote on politics and philosophy. Joseph butler belongs to the literature of philosophy and theology.
• كان الاب يحاول قراءه الجريده: ولكن ابنه الصغير لم يتوقف عن مضايقته,وحين تعب الاب من ابنه,قام بقطع ورقه فى الصحيفه كانت تحوى على خريطه العالم ,ومزقها الى اجزاء صغيرة وقدمها لابنه وطلب منه اعاده تجميع الخريطه ثم عاد ليقرأ صحيفته,ظانا انه سيبقى الطفل مشغولا بقيه اليوم الا انه لم تمر خمسه عشره دقيقه حتى عاد الطفل اليه وقد اعاد الخريطه !
• فتسائل الاب مذهولا!
• هل كانت امك تعلمك الجغرافيا ؟!
• رد الطفل قائلا : لا:لكن كانت هناك صورة الانساء على الوجه الاخر من الورقه,وعندما اعدت بناء الانسان اعدت بناء العالم ايضا!
• باولو كويلر ,قصه قصيرة
• الدراما
• The Drama
•   The drama of pope's age is of slight importance. The most important work is in tragedy was done by Addison in his " cato" which was an attempt to introduce the English drama to the rhetorical بلاغيه drama of the French school. It contain a few fine passages but its versification is infelxible and its characters lifeless.
•   The Most significant اهم thing about the comedy of the time as a whole is its determination to purify itself from the extravagance اسراف of the Restoration drama.
• Forgetting that the first business of comedy is to amuse and not to preach, steel turned his plays into a sort of lay puplit, and became the founder of that highly gentles didactic , and vapid kind of play which is known as sentimental comedy.
• _______________________-
• الناقد الثالث 
• The Age of johnson
• "General prose"
•    In the second half of the eighteenth 18th century, there were grat changes taking place in the spirit of English society:
• (1)The new generation reacted against the coldness and the drydness of the preceding السابق age.
• (2) They began to crave يتشوق الى something more natural and spontaneous ذاتى in thought and language.
• (3) The emotions were now reinstated and all life.
• (4) We see this also in the case of religion.The preachers used the feeling to convince  people , not the reason.
• (5) People became familiar with the notions شعارات of liberty حريه equality مساواة, شىي فاث قهلافس خب ةشىز
• (6) The literature will reveal يكشف  in many ways the conflict of lold ideas and new.     
• Johnson
•   Sumuel Johnson (1709-1784) is an English poet, critic and journalist. He is regarded as one of the eminent اهم figures of the 18th century. He wrote; " A dictionary of the English language", in which he illustrated his definitions of elements literature by quotations اقتباسات taken from the English literature.
•   He published his didactic تعليميه tale, "Rasselas", in 1759: and his largest and also his greatest work, " The lives of the Most eminent English poets with critical Observations on their works" in 1779-81. He died in 1784, and was buried, in westminster Abbey.
•   As a critic of literature, he is always penetrating and stimulating. In all his tastes he was conservative and holding the priciples of the Augustan School of Poetry.
• GoldSmith
•   The witer who stands nearest to Johnson himself is oliver Goldsmith. Most of his works انتاجه belong to the class of what are popularly known as " pot-boilers" الارزقيه.His more important works are " The Traveler" and " The Deserted Village", one novel " The Vicar of wakefield" , and two comedies " The Good-Natured Man"
• and "she stoops to conquer". To these should be added a number of essays including a series entitled " the citizen of the world"
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•   A striking مدهشه feature of Glodsmith's original writing is the strong personal element in all of them. Their peculia مميز charm is Fundamentally بشكل اساسى the charm of the man himself. A large portion of his imaginative work is really reminiscenece ذكريات ماضية.
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• Other prose writrers of the period
•   Some of the best prose work of johnson's age was done in history, David hum wrote a "History of England" Which is characterized clearness of style, but greatly marred فسد by carelessness in facts and was against the puritans.
•     William robertson made a great mark with his"History of scotland","History of charles V",and"History of America".
• Edward Gibbon wrote " History of the Decline and fall of the Roman Empire" that remains one of the masterpieces تحفه of historical literature.
• Edmund burke, a man of noble nature, who wrote : On American Taxation" and "On conciliation with America"
• الروايه
•  The Novel
• Prose fiction in England before Richardson:
•    It may be contended يجادل that it was with Richardson that prose fiction (Novel) passed into its modem from. Before him the novel was as the following:
•     During the age of shakespeare, most of the hands of Aphra Behn and several other women-writers. They began to develop a form of story which was marked by brevity الايجاز.
•     Also, we must mention Bunyan's effective use of fiction as allegory and the increasing popularity of biography سيره used by Defoe.
• *Historical significance of the novel
•     In the first place, the popularity of the novel coincided with and depended upon the growth of a various reading public.
•     Secondly, the novel was a sign that literature was beginnign to get rid of the limitations of classicism.
•     Thirdly, the rise of the novel was one result of the democratic movement in eighteenth century England. It discussed all sorts and conditions of men, the middle class, and low life.
• Richardson
•     Samuel Richardson may be called the father of the modern novel. He is a rich printer, who had reached the age of 50 without realizing any talent موهبه for authorship التأليف ;and then moved انتقل by mere مجرد accident his task when a true story had heard many years before came to his mind.
•     No one, even Defoe, had yet written a novel of contemporary social and domestic منزليه life such a novel Richardson Produced in" Pamela".
•     The story tells of a young girl, who is a long time persecuted مضطهده by the addresses معاكسات of the libertineفاسق son of her mistress now dead and successfully resists all his arts and intrigues خداع untill at last , his heart beging softened towards her , he makes her his wife.
•     He also wrote two successors تابعين "clarissa" and "sir charles Grandson"
• "Clarissa" is Richardson's masterpiece : and it is still regarded as one of the greatest of 18th century novels.
•     Richardson's books are extremely long, and are filled with repetitions and unimportant detain. They are all written in the form of the letters which pass among the characters. He carried on the ethical اخلاقى traditions of Addison and steele .His works contributed in the puritification of the society.
• Fielding 
•     He is an 18th century novelist. He turns Pamela into burlesque هزل . This was the origin of " The Advantures of joseph Andrews". As Richardson's heroine had been tempted تغوى by her master, so his hero is tempted by his mistress; and he keeps up the parody" the gratest novel of the eighteenth century. Fielding third great novel "Amelia" appeared in 1751.
•     Fielding was much concerned about the strucural principles of prose fiction , a matter to which neither defoe nor Rihchardson had given much attention Finally, he is a great social satirist that intended ti show the vice of his society.
• Smollett
•     He is an 18th century novelist. He wrote half a dozen novels, the most important of which are " The Adventures of Roderick Random","The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle", and "The Expedition of Humphrey clinker".
•     Smollett conceived the novel as a large picture of life, and made little attempt to organize his materials into artistic whole. His stories are simply strings خيوط of advantures. His fertility خصوبه of invention and animation are remarkable; but his characters are generally very crudely بغير اتقان drawn. The world as he depicts expressly as a satirist and reformer مصلح , and that his purpose was to paint the evils of life.
• The revival of romance
•     While the eighteenth century novel arose as a picture of men and sinners, some movements began to appear. A revival of romance was the result. In this revival the most obvious name is that of Horace walpole, who has already been mentioned as a letter - writer.
•     He bought a small house which little by little he transformed it into a miniature صغير Gothic castle. The he wrote a Novel called " castle of Otranto" This extraordinary book" Castle of otranto" impresses تدهشنا us today as a mere jumble crude غير مقنن supernaturalism.
• يعنى هو كان بيألف قصص رعب ههههههه مع اننا لما نقرأ هذه القصص الان نكتشف انها لا تمس للرعب بصله بل انها لا ترعب حتى الطفل
•     Senstionalism الاثاره was the general characteristic of the romantic fiction Ann Radcliffe gained a huge public by he " Romance of the forest " , "The Mysteries of Ridolph", and " The Italian", books which are very long , very complicated in plot, full of thrilling مرعبه situations. Mathew Gregory Lewes, acheved a great success on somewhat simillar lines with his first book, "Ambrosia" or "The Monk".
• Verse
• General characteristics:
•      The history of our later 18th century poetry is the History of a struggle between old and new and of the gradual triumph نصر of the new .On the one hand. 
• There were writers who followed the general practice of the school of pope. On the other hand, other writers are against school of pope and they end to fresh subjects, fresh forms, and fresh modes of feeking and expression. Thus the Age of Johnson, in respect of its poetry, is an age of transtion تحول ,innovation ابداع , and varied experiment. The new characteristics of poetry become:
• (1) Emotion, passion and imagination invaded غزت  poetry to لكى تهدم وتحطم  the destruction of its dry intellecuality الفكر المجرد.
• (2) The old didacitc priciples were discarded ازليت.
• (3)  Poetry ceased توقف to concern itself with the "town" and began to deal with nature and rustic ريفيه life.
• (4) The romantic spirit revived, and this revival brought with it great changes in the themes of verse.
• (5) Efforts were now made to break away from the conventions عادات of poetic diction, and to substitute احلالها fo these simplicity of phrase and the language of nature.
• (6)  The supremacy سياده of the closed couplet was attacked, and other forms of verse used in its place.
• The continuance of the Augustan Tradition
• Neglecting many minor men, we may here associate his with the names of two most important writers Johnson and Goldsmith. In an epoch فتره of change, They held fast to the past. They were equally conviced that the writers of the Augustan age provided " the true standard for future imitation". This the creative work of both these writers is classical in matter and manner.
•       Johnson's two cheif poems, " London" and "The Deserted village ", are didactic; They are written in the closed couplet.
• The reaction in form
•       In considering some aspects of the reaction against the Augustan tradition, we may begin with the chage in from. The main feature of this reaction in style was the abandonement تركك of the popean couplet for experiments in other kinds of verse.
• For example, the rise and spreading popularity of blank verse.
•        The first important piece of 18th century blank verse in thomson's "seasons", and queal interest attached to what is known as the spenserian revival.
• This began quite early in the century with a number of attempts to reproduce the spenserian stanza, and even spenser's diction. Johnson's " The rambler" is evident of the extending power of this particular movement.
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• The growth of the love of nature in eighteenth century poetry
•        The growth of the love of nature and of a feeling for a picturesque صور حيه is one of the most marked and interesting features in the history of English poetry.
• Thomas parnell and Lady winchilsea show a sense of natural beauty and the charms of rural life. For example, james Thomson's "seasons" descriptive poem in which he gices us real landscape ;he writes largely from personal knoledge and many of his minor touches are marked by great precision احكام  and sybpathy.
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• The development of naturalism 
•        This return to nature meant something more than an increasing feeling for the picturesque and for the charms of the country. Greater simplicity in the subject-matter chosen, in the passions described, and in language employed, were thus among the prinipal objects aimed at by many poets.
•        At this point mention may be made of the works of william blade. His "poetical sketches"," songs of Innocence " and "songs of experience" the love of the country , of simple life, of childhood and home, marks him out as a leader in that naturalistic kind of poetry.
•        Meanwhile, another contrasted phase of naturalism was being exemplified by blake's contemporary George Grabbe, in whose works; "The village", "The Newspaper","Tales in verse" and"Tales of the half" it took the form of extreme realism.
• The Romantic Revival
•    By romantic we con note:
• (1) Spontaneity تلقائيه in literature, which implies تتضمن the assertion التأكيد of individuality against the conventions of the schools and the belief the poetic genius is really inspired.
• (2) A particular mood and temper, of which stronge passion, sensibility.
• (3) A love of the wild, fantastic, abnormal غير مألوف and supernatural.
• (4) A fondness اعجاب  for a particular kind of subject-matter which was quite a fresh kind in the middle of the 18th century, and which gave free play to individual genius, and appealed to the newly taste for the marvelous.
• (5) Ballad literature became popular with general readers. The most important ballad book of the 18th century was bishop percy's "Reliques of Ancient English poetry".
• (6) Byt for the full meaning of this phase of the romantic movment we have to turn to what are known as the Ossianic Poems.These Ossianic poems are filled with supernaturalism.The world they depicted was a world of heroic simplicity set in a landscape of mountains and mists ضباب.
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• Gray, Burns, and Cowper
•     Thomas Gray, a great scholar produced but little poetry, but what he wrote is not only fine in quality and finsih, but is also interesting as a kind of essence of the changes which ere coming over the literature of his time.
•     The "Elegy written in a country churchyard" was published by in 1751 with this a great change appears There is, first, the use of nature. There is next, the churchyrad scenes, the twilight atmosphere, and the melancholy of the poem, which at once connect it with one side of romantic movement.
•     Robert Burns was endowed منح with a spontaneous power pf genius and an almost unrivalled خارج المنافسه gist جوهر  of song. He is a scottish peasant فلاح , he wrote frankly بصراحه  as a peasant, and became the poetic iterpreter مفسر of the thoughts and feelings, humor, the homespun شعبيه  philosophy the joys, sorrows, passions, and superstition خرافه  of the class from which he sprang. He read widely and critically.
•     Perhaps more than any other poet of the later 18th century he helped to bring natural passion back into English verse.
•     William Cowper began to write poetry late in life. He was not a student of poetry;
• he gave little or no attention to poetry as an art; he wrote just to express his own ideas in his own way in his satires indeed he follows the conventional model of pope, but in his principal poem, "The Task", he abandons tradition entirely and pursues تبع an independent مستقل  course. This long blank verse poem is one sense as much the poetic massterpiece of late 18th century evangelicalism. In thesympathetic treatment of nature and landscape he comes nearest of all eighteenth century poets to wordsworth.

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