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•Define the following terms:-
1-
Foregrounding
2- Cohesion
3- lexical cohesion
4- Dialect
and idiolect
5- Registers
1-
Foregrounding
Foregrounding is a motivated
deviation from linguistic or other socially accepted norms.
It
is a basic principle of aesthetic communication. Foregrounding is certainly
valuable, if not essential, for the study of poetic language.
The norms of the language are regarded as a
"background' and features which are prominent because of their abnormality
are placed in focus. The obvious
illustration of foregrounding comes from the semantic opposition of literal and
figurative meaning. In Dylan Thomas's 'This Bread I Break,' there are two kinds
of foregrounded. GROUPINGS OF LEXICAL ITEMS ARE PROMINENT. First, the poet uses inanimate nouns and
psychological words grape's joy ' and 'desolation in the vein
.' Second he uses verbs of violent action in an inappropriate context
like 'broke---joy,' and 'broke the sun.
2- Cohesion
Cohesion is a dimension of linguistic description which is particularly
important in the study of literary texts. It refers to the way in which
independent choices in different points of a text correspond with or presuppose
one another, forming a network of sequential relations. Dylan Thomas's 'This
Bread I break' is full of examples of cohesion. The selection of present tense
in line i, n and 15, and of the past tense in lines, 1,3,5,7,9,10 and 13 are of
little interest as isolated facts. Starting from a starting point in the
present the poet makes an excursion into the past, returning to the present at
the beginning and end of the final stanza.
Second, the present tense patterns with the first and second person
pronouns; T (1), 'my'(15 twice), and 'you' (11 twice, 15 twice), whereas the
past tense patterns with 'man' (4, 10) the only personal noun in the text.
Third the past tense patterns with 'man' (Lines and 10). These distributions
accord with the semantic opposition between immediacy and non-immediacy.
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Mr. Ahmed
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The poem is also fill of examples of lexical cohesion. The most obvious
kind of lexical cohesion consists in the repetition of the same item of
vocabulary; 'bread' (lines 1,8,15), 'break' (lines 1, 5, 10, 11), 'oat' (lines
1,9,13). Choice of vocabulary is largely restricted to items which have a clear
semantic connection such as ' bread', 'oats', 'corps' and other can be traced
through 'tree', 'drink', 'break', 'sun'.
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Mr. Ahmed
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Linguistic have used the term 'dialect'
for varieties of language which are linguistically marked off from other
varieties and which correspond to geographical, class, or other divisions of
society a dialect is thus the particular set of linguistic features which a
defined subset of the community shares. An idiolect refers, more specifically,
to the linguistic 'thumbprint' of a particular person to the features of speech
that mark him off as an individual from those around him. Dialect and idiolect
are
noticeable on geographical. syntactic
(grammatical and lexical) and semantic level.
5- Registers;
A register is the diversity of English
usage not according to the background of the speaker or writer, but according
to the situation in which he is prompted to use language. It is usual to
distinguish, amongst the circumstances which affect our use of English, the
medium of communication, the social relation between the participants, and the
role of the communication.
Each person has a range of registers, or
usages amongst which he can move without difficulty and often unconsciously.
For instance, our manner of speech is transformed when we turn from
conversation with a close friend or member of the family to talk to a Stanger.
Registers, like dialects, are different uses of English. They are distinguished
by special features of semantics, vocabulary, grammar, sometimes even of
pronunciation.
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Mr. Ahmed
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• Write a short stylistics analysis .
Answer:
Stylistics is the study of language as art ; in order
to practice it one needs artistic sensibility , the gift becoming imbued with
the feelings of others to a degree which I am unable to reach.
Stylistics
is an extension of practical criticism. Stylistic is concerned with the study
of language as used in literature with the aim of relating it to artistic
function . Stylistics must not be restricted to phonological or morphological
or lexical or syntactic observation: it must be built up of observation made at
various level.
Style is the way in which a person shapes and
arranges his thought for a specific end. Style is a man's way of writing and
his way of expressing himself.
Language is the dress of
thought and style is the particular cut and fashion of the dress.
Style is identified in the
traditional way by the distinction between what said and how it is said, or
between the content and the form of a text.
The content is usually denoted by
terms such as "information", "message" while the style is
defined as variations in the aesthetic quality or the reader's response. The
concepts of modern linguistics are used to identify the stylistic features
which are held to be distinctive of a single work.
•Write an essay on the literature and style .
The use of imagination is
important and has been shown in the literary extracts. The choice and
relationship of words is directed by the fact that the writer is not attempting
a straight forward factual exposition of his subject matter. He is creating his
own sort of reality, making up characters, places and conditions through the
language which he uses. To do this we have to accept his basic assertion, to
perform what Coleridge called a willing suspension of disbelief.
Critical judgment begins once
we are inside the writer's imagined world and can try to assess how well he has
performed his self-appointer task of creation.
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Mr. Ahmed
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One factor in the understanding of literary language is to see it always
in the service of the writer's imagination.
Another feature which helps to
distinguish literature from other types of writing is the significance attached
to the chosen form of presentation.
The use of the different genres;
poetry, drama, the novel and their sub divisions needs fuller consideration in
its effect on literary language. With the chosen genre goes the question of
pattern. This includes the chapter
divisions of a novel and the scenes of a play, as well as the more
obvious an apparent patterning of poetry.
All these factors suggest that
literature has no purpose as is primary aim, comparable to the purpose of
instruction, persuasion or moral reform which may direct other types of
writings. Writers have sometimes urged reality as a way of introducing their
imaginary world.
Literary English can and must
accommodate a great deal of usage that isn't normally written. While keeping to
the long established standers of grammar and spelling for its normal expression,
it will take on the styles, registers and dialects suitable for those who inhabit
its total imaginative world. To the extent that it
must use such special forms, it is subject to the changes that overtake
the spoken more rapidly that the written language. Yet the risk has to be taken
by a writer whose aim is to create through language a world drawn from the one
in which he is living, yet he given its own reality through the work of
imagination.
•Write an essay on the literature and everyday
language.
Literature has no single style;
one of its features is an ability to accommodate any style or idiolect found in
the language. The usage of everyday life is not barred from literature, but is
invited to enter. Yet we know that the language of literature is in some way
different from that of common use. The everyday language which we consider so
natural an ordinary is sometimes very odd. The language of literature is not
different language worked out by conferences, writers….etc.
The reader's relationship with
a writer is a sort of dialogue in which the reader is comprehending and
responsive but silent partner. The writer can't go far
from familiarity if he is to maintain contact. Language which would not
be acceptable through the speech may be used with much greater frequency in a
work of literature.
A language like Italian with
fewer vowel sounds has a greater range but less variety. English tends and
favors verse forms in which not too many rhymes are attempted on a single word.
Thus the nature of the language does something to
engender its verse. In ordinary use rhyme can creep in unexpected way.
Another device of literary
language may seem to move well away from everyday usage. One rule which must be
accommodate in any acceptable grammar of English that a pronoun can't be
treated as a noun and be preceded by an adjective and the definite article. We
can come nearer to the language of literature by looking more carefully at
familiar language. When a number of features which are casual or infrequent in
speech are found more abundantly, they may identify a text as literary. It is
adaptation that gives material on which critical reading is nourished.
Write an essay on Shakespeare's
vocabulary ?
Coleridge's claim that
'poetry consist of the proper words in their proper order' is today accepted as
a definition of universal validity. In fact as a definition it raises as many
questions as it answers, though it is usually understood to mean that for the
poet there is only one word that is suitable for any given place in a poem and
that substitution of that word by another leads to a distortion of the poem's
meaning. Hence the poet's task is to find the proper word for each slot in his
poem.
Shakespeare is one of the most
outstanding poet and playwright in the English literature. This is because his
plays had and will have no counterpart. This is because his plays deal with
psychological problems that may occur at any time and at any place. Shakespeare
invented many words in English such as :
(1)
He is cinematic
in his scene-changes. This is because his actions are swift and rapid and this
swiftness demands a medium as fluid as the cinema.
(2)
He is not
cinematic in language. Words were important to him not just the meaning of
them,
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Mr. Ahmed
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(3)
but rather their
sound. He has no patience to wait for the right word to come, so he made for
himself a private dictionary and invented words of his own. In later plays such
as Lear ;
·
Language is
abrupt compressed, harsh, and hard to understand.
·
Words pour out
that there is never still impression of careful slow composition.
·
He wrote with
great speed and facility.
(4)
He is always
aware of his own Elizabethan audience. He tries to establish intimacy with his
audience, to bring it into the play, and his soliloquies are not speeches which
the actor pretends to deliver them to himself, but intimate communications with
the audience. This audience had to be given what it wanted;
·
Action and blood
for the unlettered
·
Fine phrases and
wit for the gallants
·
Thought and
debate for the more scholarly.
·
Love-interest for
ladies.
(5)
The greatness of
Shakespeare lies in a consistency of achievement.
He did what nobody could do after his
death.
·
He wrote comedies
as good as Ben Johnson.
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Mr. Ahmed
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·
He produced
tragedies as good as Marlowe.
·
He gave us so
many characters of all kind, so many comic and tragic situations.
(6)
He encloses all
the playwright of his time; he is ten men in one.
His greatness was summed up in that
phrase, 'Next to god, Shakespeare has created most.'
Write a short essay on the
special language of literature ?
Or
What are the features of
literary language ?
=> Literature is a special language
that has many features that
distinguish it from the ordinary language.
The First is that the work of literature is not only an imaginative
representation of life. It is also a linguistic structure offering itself in
terms of verbal selection and ordering. It does not like referential writing
that conveys facts and ideas with the minimum possible distortion of the
reality from which they spring. Whatever truths literature may yield.
its assessment is never based on whether it is "true" or
"false" as a statement about things as they are.
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Mr. Ahmed
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The second is that literary language does not make assertions which the
reader can go to verify or disprove on any evidence outside the work. Yet it is
in touch with the reader's experience, when it goes beyond familiar usage, it
is still our knowledge of the common core of language which allows us to judge
whether the stager is artistically successful. The language is used to convey
an imaginative creation; the writer is answerable for the integrity of his
linguistic choice, not for the accuracy of his information.
The third is the concentration of certain features which are rare of
unnoticed in ordinary speech is a characteristic of literature such
concentration is an aspect of what is known as foregrounding. The term
foregrounding derives form visual art; the painter can bring something into
prominence by setting it in the foreground of his picture and thus by the laws
of perspective making it dominate the whole.
Foregrounding is achieved by some degree of deviation from the normal
use of language. Our knowledge of how English normally works allows us to make
quantitative judgment of how far the deviation has gone.
Literature is founded on a blend of the normally acceptable use of
language with the deviant. If the deviation is too extreme and loses contact
with the
reader. the writer may have failed in that instance. It is wish,
however, not to give up as soon as the ground becomes unfamiliar, but it is necessary
to follow the writer's orientation in order to see what language can really be
made to do.
· Write stylistic analysis of Dylan Thomas's poem "this bread I break."
Answer
This bread I break was once the oat,
هذا الخبز الذي أأكله كان ذات مره نبات الشوفان
This wine upon a foreign tree
وهذا الخمر الذي أشربه كان عنبا على شجرة
Plunged in its fruit;
التي اسقطت فواكهها
Man in the day or wine at night
فالبشر نهارا او الرياح ليلا
Laid the crops low, broke the grape's joy.
قطعوا المحاصيل ومنعوا فرحة العنب
Once in this time wine the summer blood
فذات مره الخمر دم الصيف
knocked in the flesh that decked the vine,
كان يلتصق فى جسده ويزين الاشجار
Once in this bread
وذات مره كان هذا الخبز
The oat was merry in the wind;
شوفانا جميلا فى الرياح
Man broke the sun, pulled the wind down.
ولكن الانسان دمر كل هذا
This flesh you break, this blood you let
هذا الخبز الذى تأكله وهذا الخمر الذى تشربه
Make desolation in the vein,
والذى خرب وريد الطبيعة
were oat and grape
كان شوفانا وعنب
Born of the sensual root and sap;
ولأننى ولدت من نفس الجذر الحسى ونفس الاخطاء
My wine you drink, my bread you snap.
فأنت تشرب من خمرى وتأكل-تنهش من خبزي
Answer
The speaker in the poem "This Bread I break" by Dylan Thomas
is eating bread and drinking wine. When he think seriously he finds that the
bread he is eating now was in form of oat in the past and the wine in the form
of grape in a foreign country. But man during the day and wind at night felled
the oat and the grape. In the summer the juice of the vines beautiful.
Similarly, oat in the bread was happily dancing in the wind. But man
destroyed the nature and natural products by destroying the oat and the grapes.
Now the speaker feels that, like oat and grape, he is also part of
nature and therefore he assumes to be the food himself. And he addresses other
diner and says that the flesh (bread) he is breaking and the blood (wine) he is
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Mr. Ahmed
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drinking were oat and grape sometime in the past. It makes the speaker
feel lonely and sad. And the speaker reminds the diner that he is drinking the
former's wine and eating former's bread.
The poem " This bread I break " is a poem with multiple
meanings. On a simple level, the poem is about nature: it is nature's voice
reminding human beings that they are consuming and spoiling her. But, at a
deeper level, it echoes the voice of Jesus Christ reminding his followers to
remember his sacrifice and his path of salvation. We can also interpret the
poem as the voice of the poet, the creative artist or the intellectual telling
us that we are consuming, enjoying and destroying the product of their toil and
struggle. In every way, the poem tells us that we depend on different sources
for life: for food, for ideas, for spirituality, for living as aesthetic,
intellectual and social beings. The poem is also striking in its style, its
music and word game.
· Write briefly on Charles
Dickens use of vocabulary in David Copperfield.
Dickens's use
of language is Copperfield is characterized by the frequent recurrence of a
number of
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Mr. Ahmed
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In the first place, there are
three adjectives which are; 'little', 'own' and 'old'
.
"Little" is
constantly used by Dickens where another author might have used
"small". But she prefers "little" for its emotional
implications not given by "small"
Ti reveals his personal emotional approach to situations. We found it in
a series of 14 chapters, when Emily is called "little Emily". This
adjective occurs 19+ times.
The adjective "own" comes to reflect the intense self-pity and
solitude. In the same group of fourteen chapters as above there are 85
"owns". We have some examples such as; " I have my own
opinion..."," my own means..." and" your own boy...".
this word is particularly striking in the Mudstone and Grin by episode.
The adjective "old" occurs 97 times. This adjective was used
in the emotional sense of "familiar" rather than the primary sense of
"not young". We have many examples such as ; "old flower",
"old little corner"...etc.
Besides his sentimental tendency, his natural intensity is clearly
revealed by words like "quite", "great", "indeed",
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Mr. Ahmed
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by the phrase 'a good' or 'a great'-'deal', and by the presence of
numerous superlatives and other forms of reinforcement. We have some examples
about these, "I was quite tried". Within eight chapters, we find 30
uses of "indeed" most in the character's speech. The word
"great" was used to reflect the surprise. "great" occurs 85
times. He used the superlatives and he reinforced it by 'ever', 'never', "I
never was so much afraid of any one".
He also fond of the strong expressions, so he used the words "hardly,
almost", " I hardly ever...saw both" and was fond of spontaneous
modes of expression such as ; " quite heart-broken", "greatly
dejected", "most amazing".....etc.
Another thing that is obvious is his using for the verb "said"
much in dialogue; "said he" and for the stage directions, " I
looked at him...etc.
Discuss briefly the "use
of imagery in Hamlet.'
Answer
In hamlet, we find ourselves in an entirely different atmosphere from
that of Romeo and Juliet and this is
due to the number of images of sickness, disease or blemish of the body.
Hamlet speaks of his mother's sin as "a blister on the fair forehead of an
innocent love". He speaks of her " sick soul" and as in king
Lear the emotion is so strong and the picture is so vivid, that the metaphor
overflows into the verbs and adjectives.
He compares eh unnecessary fighting between Norway and Poland to a kind
tumor which grows out of too much prosperity. He sees the country and the
people in it alike in terms of a sick body needing medicine or the surgeon's
knife. He describes the action of conscience in the unforgettable picture of
the healthy, ruddy countenance turning pale with sickness.
When he hears of the murder of Polonius, he declares that his weakness
is not sooner having had hamlet shut up was comparable to eh cowardly action of
man with a "foul disease"
To keep it from divulging, let it feed
Even on the pith of life
Finally, he sums up the essence of the position and its urgency with
lightening vividness in a short medical phrase;
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Mr. Ahmed
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This image pictures and reflects not only the outward condition which
causes hamlet's spiritual illness, but also his own state, Indeed, the shock of
the discovery of his father's murder and the sight of his mother's conduct have
been such that when the play opens hamlet has already begun to die, to die
internally. To Shakespeare's pictorial imagination, therefore, the problem in
hamlet is not that of will and reason, of a mind too philosophic or a nature
unfitted to act quickly. He sees it as something greater and even more mysterious.
That is the tragedy of hamlet as it is perhaps the chief tragic mystery of life.
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